mmPencil: Toward Writing-Style-Independent In-Air Handwriting Recognition via mmWave Radar and Large Vision-Language Model

In-air handwriting recognition based on radio frequency (RF) signals offers a promising solution for human-computer interaction, yet existing methods are often limited by predefined writing planes, constrained writing styles, and small recognition vocabularies. To address these limitations, we propose m 2VLMs, a modality mapping architecture that bridges millimeter-wave (mmWave) radar sensing and large vision-language models (VLMs), and develop mmPencil, a 3D in-air handwriting word recognition system. mmPencil reconstructs 3D handwriting trajectories from mmWave signals using a multi-stage spatial trajectory reconstruction algorithm and maps them into visual representations through a spatial-to-visual mapping algorithm, enabling VLMs to recognize handwriting while reducing sensitivity to writing styles and environmental factors. We collect and release a 3D mmWave handwriting dataset containing 7,664 samples of 200 words from 12 users across 22 writing scenarios. Extensive experiments demonstrate that mmPencil achieves robust word recognition under variations in writing position, range, angle, speed, size, direction, and user movement. It achieves 97.60% accuracy on 200 word classes for seen users and 92.50% zero-shot accuracy on 50 word classes for unseen users, outperforming state-of-the-art baselines.