Cross-Lingual Bias in Large Language Models: A Comparative Analysis of English and Swahili

arXiv:2608.03532 · cs.CL · Submitted 2026-08-04 · Read on arXiv

Ruolei Zhang, Teddy Njuguna, Yue Feng

cs.CL

Submitted: 2026-08-04

Project page: https://commoncrawl.github.io/cc-crawl-statistics/plots/languages

License: http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/

Terminology

• Semantic Similarity — 7× in this paper · explained in 2 episodes
• Benchmark — 4× in this paper · explained in 2 episodes
• Transformer — 4× in this paper · explained in 2 episodes
• Abstraction — 3× in this paper · explained in 1 episode
• Low-Resource Languages — 3× in this paper · explained in 4 episodes
• Accuracy — 2× in this paper · explained in 1 episode
• Transferability — 2× in this paper · explained in 5 episodes
• Transformers — 2× in this paper · explained in 2 episodes
• Consistency — 1× in this paper · explained in 3 episodes
• External Validation — 1× in this paper · explained in 2 episodes
• Fidelity — 1× in this paper · explained in 2 episodes
• Generative Model — 1× in this paper · explained in 2 episodes
• Generative Models — 1× in this paper · explained in 3 episodes
• Hallucination — 1× in this paper · explained in 4 episodes
• Papers — 1× in this paper · explained in 3 episodes
• Reinforcement Learning — 1× in this paper · explained in 4 episodes
• Stress and Depression — 1× in this paper
• Transformer Architecture — 1× in this paper · explained in 4 episodes
• Transformer Model — 1× in this paper · explained in 2 episodes
• Transformer Models — 1× in this paper · explained in 3 episodes

Sources

• A Cross-Lingual Analysis of Bias in Large Language Models Using Romanian History
• Gemini 2.5: Pushing the Frontier with Advanced Reasoning, Multimodality, Long Context, and Next Generation Agentic Capabilities
• Red Teaming Language Models to Reduce Harms: Methods, Scaling Behaviors, and Lessons Learned
• Qwen2.5 Technical Report
• LinguaMap: Which Layers of LLMs Speak Your Language and How to Tune Them?
• Discrimination by LLMs: Cross-lingual Bias Assessment and Mitigation in Decision-Making and Summarisation
• Gemini: A Family of Highly Capable Multimodal Models
• Cross-Language Bias Examination in Large Language Models
• MBBQ: A Dataset for Cross-Lingual Comparison of Stereotypes in Generative LLMs
• Low-Resource Languages Jailbreak GPT-4

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